Unit 1
    According to the new school of scientists，technology is an overlooked force in expanding the horizons of scientific knowledge.(71)Science moves forward，they say，not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools.(72)“In short”，a leader of the new school contends，“the scientific revolution，as we call it，was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable directions.”
    (73)Over the years，tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science. The modern school that hails technology argues that such masters as Galileo，Newton，Maxwell，Einstein，and inventors such as Edison attached great importance to，and derived great benefit from，craft information and technological devices of different kinds that were usable in scientific experiments.
    The centerpiece of the argument of a technologies，genius no advocate was an analysis of Galileo’ s role at the start of the scientific revolution. The wisdom of the day was derived from Ptolemy，an astronomer of the second century，whose elaborate system of the sky put Earth at the center of all heavenly motions.(74)Galileo’s greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth. But the real hero of the story，according to the new school of scientists，was the long evolution in the improvement of machinery for making eyeglasses.
    Federal policy is necessarily involved in the technology vs. genius dispute.(75)Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice versa(反之)often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.
    Unit 2
    The standardized educational or psychological tests that are widely used to aid in selecting，classifying，assigning，or promoting students，employees，and military personnel have been the target of recent attacks in books，magazines，the daily press，and even in Congress.(71)The target is wrong，for in attacking the tests，critics divert attention from the fault that lies with ill informed or incompetent users. The tests themselves are merely tools，with characteristics that can be measured with reasonable precision under specified conditions. Whether the results will be valuable，meaningless，or even misleading depends partly upon the tool itself but largely upon the user.
    All informed predictions of future performance are based upon some knowledge of relevant past performance: school grades，research productivity，sales records，or whatever is appropriate.(72)How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount，reliability，and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted. Anyone who keeps careful score knows that the information available is always incomplete and that the predictions are always subject to error.
    Standardized tests should be considered in this context. They provide a quick objective method of getting some kinds of information about what a person learned，the skills he has developed，or the kind of person he is. The information so obtained has，qualitatively，the same advantages and shortcomings as other kinds of information.(73)Whether to use tests，other kinds of information，or both in a particular situation depends，therefore，upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.
    (74)In general，the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicated can not be well defined. Properly used，they provide a rapid means of getting comparable information about many people. Sometimes they identify students whose high potential has not been previously recognized，but there are many things they do not do.(75)For example，they do not compensate for gross social inequality，and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.
    Unit 1　翻譯題解：
    71) Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tool.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    Science moves forward, they say, / not so much through the insights of great men of genius / as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tool.
    第二、句子主干結構是：
    not so much through... as because of... 與其……倒不如…… 因為
    not so much... as 是個并列結構，也就是說so和as后面應該兩個詞的意思應該相同，所以多義介詞through的意思應該等于
    because of 因為，由于。
    第三、詞的處理：
    the insights of great men of genius是后面帶定語的名詞短語結構，后置定語的順序應該在漢語翻譯中應該倒過來，即從后往前翻譯為：天才偉人的真知灼見。
    more ordinary things like improved techniques and tool這是結構是介詞like短語做定語修飾中心詞
    more ordinary things，也是先翻譯定語，再翻譯中心詞：像改進了的技術和工具等更為普通的東西。
    they say插入語，按照漢語習慣，翻譯時放在句首。
    完整的譯文：
    71)他們說，科學的發(fā)展與其說源于天才偉人的真知灼見，不如說源于改進了的技術和工具等更為普通的東西。
    72) In short, a leader of the new school contends, the scientific revolution, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable direction.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    In short, a leader of the new school contends, the scientific revolution, as we call it, / was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments / that expanded the reach of science in innumerable direction.
    第二、句子主干結構是：
    1)系表結構：the scientific revolution... was largely...
    2) that引導的定語從句，先行詞是the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments
    第三、詞的處理：
    In short 簡而言之
    the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments (詞性轉換)一系列器具的改進、發(fā)明和使用
    expanded the reach of science in innumerable direction 直譯：在難以計數的方向擴大了科學的范圍
    完整的譯文：
    72)新學派的一位領袖人物堅持說：簡而言之，我們所謂的科學革命，主要是指一系列器具的改進、發(fā)明和使用，而這些改進、發(fā)明和使用使科學發(fā)展無所不及。
    73) Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science.
    句子分析：
    第一、 句子可以拆分為三段：
    Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation / have largely been ignored / by historians and philosophers of science.
    第二、句子主干結構是一個簡單的被動語態(tài)句：
    tools and technology...have largely been ignored by ...主語部分有一個themselves反身代詞　　as a source of fundamental innovation介詞短語做定語
    第三、詞的處理：
    Over the years 多年來
    philosophers of science 科學思想家們
    完整的譯文：
    73)工具和技術本身作為根本性創(chuàng)新的源泉多年來在很大程度上被歷史學家和科學思想家們忽視了。
    74) Galileo's greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the earth.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    Galileo's greatest glory was / that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens / to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the earth.
    第二、句子主干結構是：
    1)系表結構Galileo's greatest glory was that...
    2)不定式短語作定語結構the first person to turn...
    3)動詞+賓語從句作目的狀語to prove that...
    第三、詞的處理：
    turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens (介詞on譯成動詞)把新發(fā)明的望遠鏡對準天空
    rather than 而不是
    完整的譯文：
    74)伽利略的最光輝業(yè)績在于他在1609年第一個把新發(fā)明的望遠鏡對準天空，以證實行星是圍繞太陽旋轉而不是圍繞地球旋轉的。
    75) Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice versa often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice versa / often depends on the issue / of which is seen as the driving force.
    第二、句子主干結構是：
    1)表示選擇意思的從句Whether the Government ...or ...究竟是……還是……作句子的主語，謂語和賓語是depends on the issue
    2)of which是賓語the issue的定語從句。
    第三、詞的處理：
    increase the financing of pure science 增加對純理論科學的經費投入
    at the expense of technology 減少對技術經費的投入
    the driving force 動力，驅動力量
    完整的譯文：
    75)政府究竟是以減少對技術經費的投入來增加對純理論科學的經費投入，還是相反，這往往取決于把哪一方看作是驅動力量。
    Unit 2 翻譯題解：
    71) The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, critics divert attention from the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, / critics divert attention from the fault / that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users.
    第二、句子主干結構是：簡單句加for引導的原因狀語。后面的that引導的是定語從句。
    第三、詞的處理：
    The target 根據上下文，這里特指標準化測試
    divert attention from 原義是把注意力引開，引申為沒有注意到
    lies with在于
    ill-informed 不甚了解
    incompetent users(詞性轉換)使用不當
    完整的譯文：
    71)把標準化測試作為抨擊的目標是錯誤的，因為在抨擊這類測試時，批評者沒有注意到測試的弊病在于使用測試的人對測試不甚了解或使用不當。
    72) How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    How well the predictions will be validated by later performance / depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom / with which it is interpreted
    第二、句子主干結構是：
    1) How well...引導的被動結構是主語從句，How well是主語從句中的狀語前置，depends是句子謂語
    2) depends后面兩個介詞短語作并列賓語upon...and on...
    3) the information used是名詞+定語
    4) with which it is interpreted定語從句，先行詞是the skill and wisdom，代詞it指代the information
    第三、詞的處理：
    be validated by 為……所證實　　 depends upon 取決于
    reliability 可靠性　　 appropriateness 適應性　　 interpreted 解釋
    完整的譯文：
    72)這些測試在多大程度上為后來的表現所證實，這取決于所采用信息的數量、可靠性和適應性，以及解釋這些信息的技能和才智。
    73) Whether to use tests, other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefore, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    Whether to use tests, other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation / depends, therefore, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity / and upon such factors as cost and availability.
    第二、句子主干結構是：Whether to use..., or both...引導主語從句depends是句子謂語，upon... and upon...是并列結構的雙賓語。
    第三、詞的處理：
    Whether to..., or 是……還是……
    both 指代前句的tests, other kinds of information
    in a particular situation 在某一特定情況下
    therefore 因此　　 the evidence from experience 經驗依據　　concerning 與……有關的　　comparative validity 相對效度　 　such factors as... 諸如……等因素
    完整的譯文：
    73)因此，在某一特定情況下，究竟是采用測試還是其他種類的信息，或是兩者兼用，須憑有關相對效度的經驗依據而定，也取決于諸如費用和有無來源等因素。
    74) In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted can not be well defined.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為四段：
    In general, the tests work most effectively / when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined / and least effectively / when what is to be measured or predicted can not be well defined.
    第二、句子的結構：
    1) 主干結構是一個排比句the tests work most effectively when...and least effectively when...　　2) 連詞when引導的是狀語從句，意思是當……的時候，從句中都是被動結構。
    3) what is to be measured or predicted是第二個從句的主語。
    第三、詞的處理：
    In general 一般的說　　work most effectively 最為有效
    be most precisely defined 很精確界定　　measured 測定
    完整的譯文：
    74)一般的說，當所要測定的特征能很精確界定時，測試最為有效;而當所要測定或預測的東西不能明確地界定時，測試的效果則最差。
    75) For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.
    句子分析：
    第一、句子可以拆分為三段：
    For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, / and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been / had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.
    第二、句子的結構：
    1)主干結構是并列句they do not compensate for..., and thus do not tell...
    2) how able是表語前置，正常語序是：... youngster might have been how able
    3)最后一個句子是虛擬語氣句的倒裝結構：had he grown up under more favorable circumstances等于If he had grown up...
    第三、詞的處理：
    they 指示代詞，測試　　compensate for 彌補　　gross social inequality 明顯的社會不公　　and thus 因此　　tell 說明　　underprivileged 貧困的、物質條件差的　　under more favorable circumstances 在較好的環(huán)境下
    完整的譯文：
    75)例如，測試并不彌補明顯的社會不公，因此它們不能說明一個物質條件差的年輕人，如果在較好的環(huán)境下成長的話，會有多大才干。