Unit Eight: Changes in Word Meaning
    Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language. It has been undergoing constant changes both in form and content and these changes are characterized by the following modes:
    1 Extension/Generalization, a process in which the specialized meaning has become generalized
    1) from specific to general picture, a painting or drawing—photo film or anything beautiful rubbish, rubble—waste or worthless thing
    2) from proper to nouns to common nouns sandwich, Earl of Sandwich, an English nobleman—slices of bread with meat between champagne, a province of East France—white wine
    3) from concrete to abstract matter, timber, the hard part of tree—substance, material, importance business, state of being busy—one’s employment, trade and getting of money, duty
    4) words from technical terms to general catalyst, a chemical term—anything triggers an event bomb, a technical term—anything quick or particularly effective
    2 Narrowing/Specialization, a process by which the word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense
    1) from general to specific meat, food and drink—flesh of animals as food, excluding that of fish and birds garage, any safe place—building where cars are stored or repaired hospital, place for shelter or entertainment of travelers—place where people are treated for illness or injuries
    2) from abstract to concrete gear, habits, manners; then, equipment, apparatus—a set of toothed wheels working together in a machine catch, act of seizing and holding a ball—a hook or an apparatus for fastening something
    3) from common nouns to proper nouns Mediterranean, (of land) remote from coast or (of water) landlocked—The Mediterranean Seas far east, remote area in east—Far East, the area in east Asia
    3 Elevation/Amelioration, a process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance minister, the head of the government department—humble servant to the king diplomat, person with art and skill at dealing with people and getting them to agree—messenger sending official statement to another part
    4 Degradation/Deterioration, a process by which words with a commendatory meaning fall into derogatory sense villein, feudal serf—villain, scoundrel/wench, young woman—a lewd woman, prostitute
    5 SemanticTransfer, a process in which the word used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else paper, an African plant papyrus used to make paper—a flat sheet of substance for writing brigand, light-armed, irregular foot soldier—armed thief, dishonest and deceitful man
    i. associated transfer: lip of wound/tongue of a bell/nose of a plane ii. subjective and objective meaning transfer: pitiful/hateful/fearful/suspicious iii. transfer of sensation: sweet music/loud color
    6 Causes for Semantic Changes
    1) Extra-linguistic Factors
    a Historical, change illustrated by a diachronic development car from Latin carrus meaning chariot, a four-wheeled carriage with back seats—a vehicle driven by a motor atom, originally regarded as the smallest indivisible particle of matter—proved to be further divisible with the discovery of proton, neutron and electron
    b Social, that reflecting the impact of social development intelligence, power of reasoning or understanding mainly referring to human—applied to that of machine as in artificial intelligence democracy, rule by people, in contrast with monocracy or autocracy—used with different senses in different societies and to different peoples
    c Psychological, change deriving from various psychological motives of love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, sarcasm, contempt, hatred or respective euphemistic use and associated transfer clown, a performer who acts to amuse people by dressing funnily or with jokes, and tricks—person acts foolishly or stupidly with strong derogative sense copperhead, a venomous snake in North America—a despised person who were secretly aiding and abetting the South in the American Civil War angel, martyr and paradise all have their meanings elevated because of the influence of Christianity
    2) Linguistic Factors
    a Ellipsis, word retained to represent the meaning of a phrase private for private soldier/bulb for light bulb b Associated Transfer, word whose meaning transfers by association fall, descend or go down freely—fall of leaves—autumn c Borrowing, word whose meaning changes because of borrowed words deer, formerly meaning animal—a large fast 4-footed animal, d Analogy, word whose meaning changes because of another word that is like it fortuitous, accidental of happening by chance—lucky, following fortunate
    Unit Nine: Semantic Changes from the Literal Use to Figurative Use
    Parallel with the generalization and specialization of denotative meaning change and elevation and degeneration of connotative meaning change, another important semantic change is from literal to figurative
    1 Metaphor, a figure of speech which makes an implied comparison between two unlike elements without the connecting words of like or as
    Imperialism is a paper tiger
    1) Anthropomorphic, comparison of inanimate objects to the parts of human body
    eye of needle/teeth of comb/lip of cup/mouth of river/nose of car/head of hammer/leg of table/foot of wall/arm of chair/hand of clock/ear of wheat/
    2) Animal, inanimate objects called after an animal
    a dark horse, one who wins in a race out of expectation black sheep, one regarded with disfavor or shame as compared with others in a group
    3) Synaesthetic, a direct association between form and meaning of language based on similarity
    warm and cold weather (literal)—warm and cold voice (metaphorical) a golden crown (literal)—a golden opportunity (metaphorical) a stormy day (literal)—a stormy quarrel (figurative)
    2 Simile, a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements with at least one point of resemblance in appearance, quality, action or effect, using connecting word such as like or as He looks like his brother Food is important to people as water to fish
    3 Metonymy, a language device involving substitution of the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it
    1) according to names of persons Uncle Sam, US government/John Bull, the English nation personified
    2) according to names of animals the Bear, the Soviet Union/the Dragon, Chinese
    3) according to names of parts of the body foot, infantry/mother tongue, native language/thumb of sth, the rule, principle of sth
    4) according to names of professions mass media, newspaper, magazine, TV and radio/bench, the judge
    5) according to location or building White House/Pentagon/Whitehall/Downing Street/Wall Street/Capitol Hill/Hollywood
    6) according to abstract words beauty, one who is very beautiful/
    7) according to the container for the thing bottle, wine/dish, food brought to table
    8) according to the material for the thing made board, a table where people sit around
    9) according to ellipsis a daily for daily paper/private for private soldier
    4 Synecdoche, a figure of speech involving the substitution of the part for the whole or the whole for the part
    1) the part for the whole We are no longer short of hands (helper) 2) the whole for the part Australia beat Canada in cricket.(the team)
    5 Euphemism, the substitution of a word with more pleasant connotation for the one with unpleasant connotation
    wash-room for toilet; lavatory/sanitation engineer for cleaner the call of nature for pass water; urinate or empty the bowels; go on stool
    untidy for dirty/unwise for foolish/untruthful for lying
    To h with it for To hell with it/Why on earth not for Why the hell not
    downturn for recession for depression for slump for economic crisis
    For Reasons of Taboo, a custom of avoiding using certain expressions for religious, cultural or other social concerns
    In western countries, people tend to avoid using religious words, thus they say:
    Goodness/My Goodness/Goodness me/For Goodness’ sake/Thank Goodness
    By Heaven/Good Heavens/Heaven forbid/Heaven knows/Gracious Heaven
    Gracious me/My Gracious/Gracious/My Gum/By Gum
    6 Personification, a figure of speech in which something impersonal is incarnated with life to act and conduct
    The pot calls the kettle black/Action speaks louder than words Fire and water are good servants but bad masters
    7 Rhetorical Features
    Rhetoric refers to the art of speaking or writing by ways of arrangement of word and its sound so as to produce special effect
    1) Phonetic Manipulation, an arrangement of words with similar or same sound to produce a particular effect
    a alliteration, the appearance of the same sound in the first two words as in might and main/part and parcel b rhyme, the ends of the same sound in words as in kith and kin/fair and square/A little pot is soon hot
    2) Lexical Manipulation, the arrangement of words to produce a particular effect
    a reiteration, the duplication of synonyms pick and choose; select with much care/odds and ends; remnants
    b repetition, the reuse of the same word in an expression all in all; totally/out and out; thoroughly c juxtaposition, the placement of antonyms side by side hit or miss/treat or trick/rain or shine/sooner or later d miscellaneous manipulation for syntactic effects as contrast/parallelism
    Unit Ten: Word Meaning and Context
    Context of situation refers to the whole set of external world features considered to be relevant in the analysis of an utterance at different levels. It states the meaning of a word in terms of the speech in which it is used. There are following examples:
    A phatic communion, a speech situation in which the words do not express meaning but a purely social action as “How are you?”
    B language deictics, expression identifying objects, persons and events in terms of their relations to the speaker in space and time as a spatial relations of here and there/this and that/come and go/bring and take b time relations of now and then/yesterday and tomorrow c social relations denoting politeness, familiarity or seriousness. They reflect the style of speech which mainly entail the following features
    a) province, concerned with expressions of occupation or professional activity b) status, related to formality and use of polite and colloquial language appropriate for corresponding social occasions c) modality, pertained to the choice of expression applicable to relevant language body such as poetry and prose, essay and short story, memoranda, telegrams or jokes
    There are two types of contexts: linguistic and extra-linguistic. The former includes lexical and grammatical ones and the latter comprises that of situation, culture and style.
    Word meaning varies and the very sense of the word is determined by the context
    1 Extra-linguistic which involves the speaker’s intention, the hearer’s interpretation and the occasion of the utterance. And it may embrace the entire cultural background
    2 Linguistic which comprises
    1) Lexical, the state in which one word meaning is affected and defined by the neighboring words A sheet of paper/a white paper/a term paper/examination paper
    2) Grammatical, the cases in which the meaning of word is influenced by the structure where the word appears This sort of behavior seldom becomes a person in your position (suit) What will become of you if the company goes bankrupt? (happen to) Daydreams have become realities. (turn into)
    3 The Roles of Context
    1) Elimination of Ambiguity He is a hard businessman (ambiguous) He is a hard businessman to deal with I like Marry better than Jean (ambiguous) I like Marry better than Jean likes Marry. I like Marry better than I do Jean
    2) Indication of Referents I want to tell. (ambiguous) I want to tell this to him now here.
    3) Provision of Clues for Interpretation
    a definition: Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics, the study of body movement, was suggested by Dr. Coleman
    b explanation: It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors—those tiny parts of a computer commonly known as ‘silicon chips’.
    c example: Many UN employees are polyglots. Ms. Mary, for example, speaks five languages
    d synonymy: Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive
    e antonymy: As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.
    f hyponymy: The village had the usual amenities: a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical center and a school
    g word structure: Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory.
    h Relevant details: ‘Do get me a clop,’ she said, smacking her lips, but her brother, with a scornful glance up at the branches, said that there were none ripe yet.
    Unit Eleven: English Idioms.
    Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences, which are peculiar to the language in discussion and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Therefore, idioms are colorful, forcible and thought-provoking. They are the expressions not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. In a broad sense, idioms include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions, proverbs, etc..
    1 Characteristics of Idioms
    1) Semantic Unity: An idiom may consist of more than one word, but each is a semantic unity, with the words involved losing their individual identity
    2) Structural Stability: Unlike that of free phrases, the structure of an idiom to a large extent is unchangeable. The word order can not be inverted nor word replaced; the constituents can not be deleted or added to; and many idioms are grammatically unanalysable The idiomaticity of expressions is gradable on a scale with forms of true idioms, semi-idioms and free phrases.
    2 Criteria on Idioms
    1) Shift/Split Test: The machine turns on the central pivot (rotate) Pop music turns many people on (excite) idiomatic
    2) Particle Deletion Test: Robert drew out 20 pounds from his savings account (withdraw) His promotion stepped up his social status (elevate) idiomatic
    3) Replacement Test: The weather really mucked up our weekend (mess up) One should never turns up his nose at anyone he dislikes.(show disdain for) idiomatic
    3 Classification of Idioms
    In terms of structure, idioms fall into the following categories: 1) Lexemic Idioms; those formed around main words as ‘like the breeze’ meaning‘easily’ 2) Phraseological Idioms; those coming into an entire clauses in length as ‘fly off the handle’ meaning lose control of oneself 3) Sentence Idioms; those established popular sayings and proverbs as ‘All is not gold that glitters’
    Stylistically, idioms take the forms of the following:
    1) colloquialism, a familiar, informal way of conversation as ‘hang in’ meaning not give up 2) slang, a kind of expression not acceptable in serious speech as ‘buck’ for dollar
    3) literary expression, a form of language not used in ordinary occasion but for the literacy in the formal statement as ‘be it that’ meaning even though
    For rhetorical purposes, idioms appeal in the following ways:
    1) phonetic manipulation a alliteration as ‘neither fish, flesh, nor fowl’ meaning difficult to classify b rhyme as ‘fair and square’ meaning just or honest
    2) lexical manipulation a reiteration as ‘bits and pieces’ meaning odds and ends b repetition as ‘by and by’ meaning gradually c juxtaposition as ‘rain or shine’ meaning under all condition
    According to figurative speech, idioms take the following forms
    1) simile as ‘eat like a horse’ meaning hungrily 2) metaphor as ‘crocodile tears’ meaning show insincere sorrow 3) metonymy, as make up one’s purse meaning raise money 4) synecdoche as ‘earn one’s bread’ meaning make a living 5) personification as ‘Action speaks louder than words’ 6) euphemism as ‘perfumed talk’ meaning indecent talk
    Unit Twelve: English Dictionary
    A dictionary is a reference book containing words usually alphabetically arranged along with information about their forms, pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings and syntactical and idiomatic uses.
    1 Types of Dictionaries
    1) monolingual, bilingual and multi-lingual 2) linguistic and encyclopedic; one defines words and the other explains facts and concepts 3) unabridged, desk and pocket 4) general and specialized/subject 5) synchronic and diachronic 6) printed and electronic
    2 The History of English Dictionaries
    The history of English dictionary began with glossaries in the Middle English period and have undergone five periods
    1) Middle Ages-end of 16th century, glossary-making; Thomas Cooper’s Thesaurus Linguae Romanae of Britannicae of 1565
    2) Beginning of 17th century, hard words dealing; Robert Cawdrey’s A Table of Alphabetical English Words of 1604
    3) Middle-end of 17th century, etymological study; Stephen Skinner’s Etymological Linguae Anglicanae of 1667
    4) 18th century, standardization; Samuel Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language of 1755
    5) 19th-20th century, improvement and maturity;
    a. Charles Richardson’s A New Dictionary of the English Language of 1836 b.The Oxford English Dictionary of 1928 c. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of 1911 d.Noah Webster’s The American Dictionary of the English Language of 1828 e. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language of 1961
    3 Content of the Dictionary
    1) spelling includes standard form, alternatives and variants; irregular verbs; forms of compound---solid, hyphenated and open; syllabication of words; and capitalization
    2) pronunciation: British dictionaries generally use International Phonetic Alphabet and American ones employ Webster’s systems
    3) definition, the main body of dictionary in which polysemants are listed chronically with early meaning coming in first, and principally literal use arranged before figurative, general before special, common before rare. The approach to definition may take the forms of explanations, synonyms, illustrative sentences and even aiding pictures
    4) usage comprises usage level: standard, substandard, non-standard, illiterate; style: formal, informal, colloquial, slang, biblical, poetic; currency: old-fashioned, archaic, obsolete; register: law, chemistry, medicine, Br E, Am E; coloring: appreciative, derogatory, euphemism, humor, pompous
    5) grammar covers word classes, inflections and system of verb patterns
    6) usage notes and language notes Usage notes explain the slight differences between words of similar meanings; difficult points of grammar