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    　　2017年10月14日托福閱讀考試小范圍預(yù)測(cè)
    　　天文類Surface Fluids on Venus and Earth
    　　參考閱讀：
    　　A fluid is a substance, such as a liquid or gas, in which the component particles (usually molecules) can move past one another. Fluids flow easily and conform to the shape of their containers. The geologic processes related to the movement of fluids on a planet’s surface can completely resurface a planet many times. These processes derive their energy from the Sun and the gravitational forces of the planet itself. As these fluids interact with surface materials, they move particles about or react chemically with them to modify or produce materials. On a solid planet with a hydrosphere and an atmosphere, only a tiny fraction of the planetary mass flows as surface fluids. Yet the movements of these fluids can drastically alter a planet. Consider Venus and Earth, both terrestrial planets with atmosphere.
    　　Venus and Earth are commonly regarded as twin planets but not identical twins. They are about the same size, are composed of roughly the same mix of materials, and may have been comparably endowed at their beginning with carbon dioxide and water. However, the twins evolved differently, largely because of differences in their distance from the Sun. With a significant amount of internal heat, Venus may continue to be geologically active with volcanoes, rifting, and folding. However, it lacks any sign of a hydrologic system (water circulation and distribution): there are no streams, lakes, oceans, or glaciers. Space probes suggest that Venus may have started with as much water as Earth, but it was unable to keep its water in liquid form. Because Venus receives more heat from the Sun, water released from the interior evaporated and rose to the upper atmosphere where the Sun’s ultraviolet rays broke the molecules apart. Much of the freed hydrogen escaped into space, and Venus lost its water. Without water, Venus became less and less like Earth and kept an atmosphere filled with carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide acts as a blanket, creating an intense greenhouse effect and driving surface temperatures high enough to melt lead and to prohibit the formation of carbonate minerals. Volcanoes continually vented more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. On Earth, liquid water removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and combines it with calcium, from rock weathering, to form carbonate sedimentary rocks. Without liquid water to remove carbon from the atmosphere, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Venus remainshigh.
    　　...
    　　Origin of the Solar System
    　　Comets
    文化藝術(shù)類
    　　The Origins of Writing
    　　Live Performance
    　　The Origins of Theater
    　　The Development of Printing
    地質(zhì)類
    　　Early Theories of Continental Drift
    　　Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age
    　　How Soil is Formed
    　　Earth’s Energy Cycle
    　　Thermal Stratification
    環(huán)境類
    　　The Climate of Japan
    　　The Role of the Ocean in Controlling Climate
    經(jīng)濟(jì)類
    　　Effects of the Commercial Revolution
    　　Seventeenth-Century European Economic Growth
    考古類
    　　Environmental Impact of the Anasazi
    　　The Collapse of the Mays
    　　The Chaco Phenomenon
    科學(xué)類
    　　The Birth of Photography
    　　Early American Printing Industry
    農(nóng)業(yè)類
    　　Agricultural Society in Eighteenth- Century British America
    　　Water Management in Early Agriculture
    社會(huì)類
    　　Population Growth in Nineteenth-Century Europe
    　　Hunting and the Setting of Inner Eurasia
    生物類
    　　Extinctions at the End of the Cretaceous
    　　The Cambrian Explosion
    　　The Extinction of the Dinosaurs
    　　How Animals in Rain Forests Make Themselves Heard
    　　Sociality in Animals
    　　Dinosaurs and Parental Care
    　　Habitat Selection
    　　Temperature Regulation in Marine Organisms
    　　Cell Theory
    　　Poikilotherms
    　　Forest Succession
    　　The Role of Diapause
    　　The Identification of the Genetic Material
    　　How Plants and Animals Arrived in the Hawaiian Islands
    　　Constraints on Natural Selection
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